Aggression In Children

Aggression is any behavior that is hostile, destructive or violent. Its intended is to harm, injure or damage a person or a target object. Aggression in human beings can be blamed on very many things that affect the growth and development of the mind. Such triggers include fear, family difficulties, emotional trauma and the media.This research helps show that television does not significantly cause aggression but there are other factors help in the development of aggressive behaviors although the television cannot be ruled out to contribute slightly.Children learn behaviors through watching and imitating others peoples’ behavior as they try to equate with them. Watching the violence on the television is suggested to slightly increase violent behaviors in children, although those already in violent behavior are greatly influenced by the media as they try learning defensive ways to protect themselves from any aggression.Aggression is manifested in children through swearing, shou ting, throwing and kicking whatever is around them and it thus needs to be measured to determine its levels for the proper control measures to be taken so as to avoid further injury.The measurement can be done using a checklist, observation for any noticeable changes in the previously known behavior; a subtype scale may as well be used to determine the aggression levels (Berkowitz, 1993, pp1-25).Aggression in children is learned through enactive learning of behavior as well as observation learning by watching others. In cases where parents resolve differences through fights the children learn to use aggression as a way of dominating over others from their early days and carry on with this behavior to their later lives.Aggression portrayed in the television is jus but fantasized by children but in actual sense has minimal contribution to aggression and other related violent behaviors evident in children.Causes of AggressionAggression in children results from very many factors that af fect them as they grow up. Some of these include:Unfulfilled human needs and other personal desires are the one of the leading causes of aggression in children. The desire for children own what their parents cannot afford like being in a fancy home, getting education from expensive schools in relation to their peers and other desires result to aggression towards those children whose parents are able to afford such luxuries.Children should thus be taught to be realistic with live and get content with whatever is available within them. Failure to control such desires results to aggression ranging from petty theft to even massacres. Aggression is not part of human life, but it is a reaction to circumstances that frustration on the acquisition of basic needs that have not been fulfilled.Pain and discomforts caused to children by their parents and other elder people in an attempt to discipline them may cause aggressive behaviors to be manifested since the child cannot fight back but will direct their anger and frustration to other children of their age or young than them who cannot fight them back.It is thus important to administer pain is a light manner. Hot environmental conditions trigger discomforts that make children aggressive.Frustration is a major cause of aggression in children; children whose achievements do not much with those of their peers are usually frustrated and end up into aggressive behaviors so as to cover up for their failures. This may either in school or other social activities where children are competing.Birth complications increase aggressive behavior latter in childhood though there is direct link. Aggressive behavior develops when birth complications combine with other factors such as disadvantaged families that cannot fully provide for their children and poor parenting. Birth complications are believed to result to damage in the nervous system that affects the brain function.This is referred to as brain dysfunction. Impaired brain funct ion predisposes the child to aggressive behaviors later in their lives because their brain is poorly functioning (Berkowitz, 1993, pp 45-169).Brain dysfunction results to aggression when the prefrontal region of the brain which controls and regulates emotional reactions is functioning poorly and cannot keep aggressive impulses in check. This results to increased likelihood of aggressive acts.Some situational factors such as exposure to alcohol impair ones judgment on making decisions. Alcohol disrupts the information making processes and this is even serious in children who get drunk they view an event as a purposeful one, and act more aggressively.Children who are desperate in live tend to be more aggressive. Desperation can be a result of massive poverty, crime or even violence situations within the community where the child is being raised in.If the rich and powerful individuals in the society are drug dealers and gangers and those who live straight are poor then the children wat ching them may conclude that to succeed in life one has to become a drug dealer or a gangster which triggers aggressive behaviors in children.Consequences of Aggression.Aggression has both positive and negative consequences to both the individual and those around them. One of the positive elements of aggression is that it preserves and protects an individual from other aggressive individuals; it also helps the child to increase their dominance in the social environment through suppressing their peers and subjecting them to their way of thinking.The negative consequences of aggression are worse to both the perpetrator and the victim. Children who are aggressive in school are more likely to be rejected by their peers because they cannot accept to be dominated by them. In worst cases aggression can result fines, loss of freedom due imprisonment. Such cases make the affected person even more aggressive and can engage in criminal acts.Aggression makes the victim lack confidence and trust with themselves because others are belittling them. This makes them develop aggressive behaviors as they try to cope with the aggressor .The child within a school setup lacks trust with every around them since they view all the other people as untrustworthy and out to oppress them. This makes them feel unsafe and insecure (Berkowitz, 1993, pp 200-290 ).Aggression results to the development of an aggressive personality on the aggressor. This type of personality develops to worse aggressive behavior as the child develops to adulthood. Aggressors have a lower intellectual achievement in their academic live because their mind cannot concentrate on one specific activity rather their minds are spread across a number of activities.Control of AggressionAggression can be controlled by giving children positive attention for desired behaviors so as to reinforce it. Parents and children caretakers should always realize that anger is a common emotion in children and the way to deal with it dete rmines the levels of aggression in children.Parents should be good role models when their children display aggressive behaviors. By becoming upset and angry when dealing with an aggressive child makes them more aggressive.By providing many physical activities such as exercise and outside play helps aggressive children to direct their energies to better and more constructive activities and avoid releasing unwanted emotions.Violent television programs and toys that encourage aggressive behavior such as the guns, sticks should be eliminated. Children usually imitate what they see rather than what they are told so through avoiding some activities that may escalate and promote aggression and redirect these children to appropriate activities.To cut defiant behavior and replace it with positive experience parents should be able to play with their children, learn how to recognize and respond to their needs and develop and mend the relationship.This will help them identify any unwanted aggre ssive behaviors that may develop due to the feeling of being neglected, some parents do not play with their children and need to learn how to connect with them, recognize and respond to their needs in the most appropriate way.Rules and commands should be explicit, constant, firm and brief. Children learn their mistakes through comparing the past to the present mistakes and how they where dealt with/It is thus important to approach a similar way of administering punishments for similar mistakes without disparities.Aggression needs a firm and consistent response for any misbehavior. Shouting out or uttering a string of dire threats to an aggressive only makes the child more resistant to any change of behavior that you wish to suppress and helps develop aggression.Planning and avoiding places which trigger aggression in children such as supermarket where a child grabs whatever is around them helps in minimizing aggression behaviors incase the child does not get what they wish to have ( Berkowitz, 1993, pp 350-465)..ConclusionHuman beings are not born violent but rather bent towards brutality and self-destruction due to their aggressive behaviors. Aggression is usually a result of unfair environments that frustrate and degrade the human dignity. It’s difficult to eliminate aggression entirely but can be reduced through the creation of free societies that encourage prosperity by providing moral education to the young people and clearly explaining to them that aggression has no importance in the long-term.Aggression like all unwanted behaviors involves biological forces and social environment that regulate behavior. Aggression is thus an outcome of the regulations between the external and internal stimuli.The television should not be fully ignored as a cause towards aggressiveness in children but the society must play a communal role in providing a good environment that does not promote frustration in the lives of the young children.Parents should ensure that they provide their children with almost all the basic needs within their reach and spare enough time to relate with their children so as to learn them as well as discover any aggressive behaviors that may be developing and stop them before they get to distractive levels.Reference:Berkowitz, L (1993).Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York; McGraw-Hill

Digital voltmeter using 8051 microcontroller Essay

Voltmeter using 8051 microcontroller.  Automatic railway gate control 8051 microcontroller use   adminOctober – 4 – 20127 CommentsVoltmeter using 8051.  A simple 0-5V voltmeter using 8051 is shown in this article. This digital voltmeter has a sensitivity of 200mV which is a bit low but this project is meant for demonstrating how an ADC and seven segment display can be interfaced to 8051 to obtain a digital readout of the input voltage. A 31/2 digit high end voltmeter will be added soon. ADC0804 is the ADC and AT89S51 is the controller used in this project. Before attempting this project, go through these projects Interfacing ADC to 8051 and Interfacing seven segment display to 8051 which will give you a good idea on the basics. Circuit diagram. 0-5 digital voltmeter using 8051 About the circuit.  In the circuit Vref/2 (pin9) of the ADC is left open and it means that the input voltage span can be o to 5V and the step size will be 5/255 = 19.6mV. The equation for the digital output of ADC0804 is Dout = Vin/Step size. In this circuit, for an input voltage of 1V the digital output will be 1/19.6mV = 51 and so the binary equivalent of 51 ie 00110011. Digital output of the ADC is interfaced to P1.0 of the microcontroller. Control signals for the ADC ie CS, RD, WR and INTR are available from the P3.7, P3.6, P3.5 and P3.4 pins of the microcontroller respectively. 2 digit multiplexed seven segment display is interfaced to Port0 of the microcontroller. Control signals for the display driver transistors Q1 and Q2 are obtained from P3.2 and P3.1 of the microcontroller. Push button switch S1, capacitor C2 and resistor R10 forms a debouncing reset circuitry. Program. ORG 00H MOV P1,#11111111B MOV P0,#00000000B MOV P3,#00000000B MOV DPTR,#LABEL MAIN: CLR P3.7 SETB P3.6 CLR P3.5 SETB P3.5 WAIT: JB P3.4,WAIT CLR P3.7 CLR P3.6 MOV A,P1 MOV B,#10D DIV AB MOV B,#2D MUL AB MOV B,#10D DIV AB SETB P3.2 ACALL DISPLAY MOV P0,A ACALL DELAY MOV P0,#10000000B ACALL DELAY MOV A,B CLR P3.2 SETB P3.1 ACALL DISPLAY MOV P0,A ACALL DELAY CLR P3.1 SJMP MAIN DELAY: MOV R3,#02H DEL1: MOV R2,#0FAH DEL2: DJNZ R2,DEL2 DJNZ R3,DEL1 RET DISPLAY: MOVC A,@A+DPTR RET LABEL: DB 3FH DB 06H DB 5BH DB 4FH DB 66H DB 6DH DB 7DH DB 07H DB 7FH DB 6FH END About the program. At first the program controls the ADC to produce a digital output corresponding to the input voltage.This digital output is scanned through P1.0 and is loaded to accumulator. Then the value in the accumulator is divided by 10 to omit the last digit. For example, let the input voltage be 4V. Then the corresponding digital output of the ADC will be 204D (D stands for decimal) .After the the division by 10, the value left in the accumulator will be 20D. This 20D is then multiplied by 2D which results in 40D. The next target of the program is to manipulate this 40D and make a 4.0 readout on the display. For this the 40D is again divided by 10D . This results in 4 inside accumulator and 0 inside B register. Then the program gets the digit drive pattern for 4 using the lookup table , puts this pattern on Port 0 and activates Q1. After 1 ms delay 10000000B is loaded to P0 and this accounts for the dot. After a further 1ms delay Q1 is deactivated, content in B (ie 0) is moved to A, gets the correct digit drive pattern for 0 using the lookup table, puts this pattern on Port 0 and activates Q2. After a further 1ms delay Q2 is deactivated and the entire cycle is repeated. 8051 Microcontroller Projects & Circuits  adminFebruary – 1 – 20138 CommentsIn this article we are listing all the projects and circuits we have developed using the 8051 micro controller. We have tested all of these projects in our lab and verified the working . All  these projects are made to solve a real world requirement or problem. Engineering students & other diploma students will find these projects useful for their mini project and main project requirements. All the 8051 projects listed below are made using the 8051 compliant microcontroller from Atmel – AT89S51. We have given the correct circuit diagram, working and software code (in assembly language) for each and every project. You can use all of them freely for your project & learning requirements. In case you are using a controller other than AT89S51 – please be sure to check the hardware of your controller and compare it with that of AT89S51. This is necessary because we have developed all the software in assembly language. If you are not that good at assembly language, you can convert the software into C language & use it with any compliant 8051 controller. Image Source 1. Ultrasonic Range Finder using 8051 – This project as the name says, is an application to measure distance of an object. It uses an ultrasonic transducer module HC-SR04 to measure the distance and the controller AT89S51 to make the necessary processing. This project can be used to make applications like Automotive parking sensor, Obstacle warning systems, Terrain monitoring robots etc. This ultrasonic range finder can measure distances upto 2.5 meters with an accuracy of 1 cm. 2. Digital Tachometer using 8051 – This project is a digital tachometer which can be used to measure the revolutions per second of any object like a rotating wheel or a disc or a shaft. This application built using 8051 micro controller can measure upto 255 revolutions/second with an accuracy of 1 rev/sec. This application has 3 important sections – 1) is the optical pickup designed to pick the revolutions of the object using a photo transistor and LED. 2) is the processing stage designed using 8051 and the associated software 3) is the display section using 7 segment displays. 3. Water Level Controller using 8051 – This is one of the most popular  project we have published using 8051 controller. This water level controller monitors the level of the over head tank and automatically switches on the water pump when ever the level goes below a preset limit. The level of the over head tank is indicated using 5 leds and the pump is switched of when the over head tank is filled. We have given an illustrated circuit diagram with working explained in detail. You will also find the software codes written in assemble language. 4. Voltmeter using 8051 – We all must have used a multimeter from our young days. Have you ever bothered to create one ? So here is one such an interesting project. A Voltmeter using 8051 micro controller. Even though its quiet simple and an easy to make one, you shall find it really interesting. This can be used as an application at the mini project level for engineering and diploma students. This digital voltmeter can measure 0 to 5 volts and has a sensitivity of 200mV which is a bit low but this project is meant for demonstrating how an ADC and seven segment display can be interfaced to 8051 to obtain a digital readout of the input voltage. ADC0804 is the ADC and AT89S51 is the controller used in this project. 5. Thermometer using 8051 – This is an interesting project designed to measure temperature using 8051. Its a simple 0-100 °C digital thermometer with 1 °C resolution using 8051. The circuit is based on LM35 analog temperature sensor, ADC0804 and AT89S51 microcontroller. LM35 is an analogue temperature sensor IC which can measure a temperature range of -55 to 150 °C. Its output voltage varies 10mV per  °C change in temperature. Knowledge Resources:- The articles below given are basics on how to work with 8051 micro controller. You can refer them if you come across a road block anywhere! 1. Interfacing 7 segment display to 8051 – A good tutorial on interfacing 7 segment display to 8051 micro controller. 2. Interfacing LCD display to 8051 – Explains how to interface a 16Ãâ€"2 LCD display with 8051 micro controller. 3. Interfacing DC motor to 8051 – Explains how to interface a DC motor with 8051 micro controller. 4. Interfacing push button switch to 8051 – Interfacing LED & Push button switch to 8051 micro controller. 5. Interfacing ADC to 8051 – This articles gives you a good detail on how to interface ADC to 8051 micro controller. ADC 0804 is used to explain the interfacing procedure with an example software routine. 8 channel light chaser using 8051 adminMay – 10 – 201210 Comments6 function 8 channel light chaser using 8051. A 6 function 8 channel light chaser using 8051 is shown here. The hardware and software of this circuit are very simple and the light functions gets repeated one after another automatically. P1.0 to P1.7 of the microcontroller (AT89S51) are assigned as the output pins. Corresponding LEDs are connected to the output pins through 1K current limiting resistors (R1 to R8). The sequence by which the output pins (P1.0 to P1.7) goes high and low is determined by the program and the LEDs follow this sequence. Circuit diagram of the 6 function chaser using 8051 is shown below. 6 function light chaser using 8051 Program. START: MOV A,#80H MOV R7,#07H MOV P1,A LCALL DELAY LABEL1: RR A MOV P1,A LCALL DELAY DJNZ R7,LABEL1 MOV R7,#07H LABEL2: RL A MOV P1,A LCALL DELAY DJNZ R7,LABEL2 MOV P1,#81H LCALL DELAY MOV P1,#42H LCALL DELAY MOV P1,#24H LCALL DELAY MOV P1,#18H LCALL DELAY MOV P1,#0FFH LCALL DELAY MOV P1,#00H LCALL DELAY MOV A,#80H MOV P1,A LCALL DELAY MOV R7,#07H LABEL3: SETB C RRC A MOV P1,A LCALL DELAY DJNZ R7,LABEL3 MOv P1,#00H LCALL DELAY MOV A,#0AAH MOV P1,A LCALL DELAY CPL A MOV P1,A LCALL DELAY LJMP START DELAY: MOV R4,#03H WAIT1: MOV R3,#00H WAIT2: MOV R2,#00H WAIT3: DJNZ R2,WAIT3 DJNZ R3,WAIT2 DJNZ R4,WAIT1 RET END

Abnormal Psychology; Defining Abnormality

Abnormal Psychology: Assignment 1- Defining abnormality Defining abnormal behaviour is one of the most difficult and provocative subjects within the field of abnormal psychology as there are a range of methodologies you can use to define abnormalities. Abnormality is a behaviour or condition that strays from what society views as normal and appropriate, consequently causing distress or harm to oneself or those around them.Due to the fact that society has changed through history when defining abnormality, we are now able to define abnormalities using many different scientific and non-scientific approaches. However despite the fact that abnormal behaviour can be defined in more than one way, all have their limitations; therefore generally psychologists will use a combination of the following methods when defining abnormalities. Statistical infrequency is one model used to define abnormal behaviour; abnormalities are defined by how often a certain type of behaviour occurs.How the majori ty of people act are usually classed as normal whereas possessing qualities and traits that are uncommon or rare are usually classed as abnormal. Despite the word abnormal invoking a feeling of negativity, displaying abnormal behaviour is not always viewed as a negative, for example the average human being would not be able to run 100 metres as quick as Usain Bolt as that kind of skill is statistically infrequent therefore according to this particular model he possesses an abnormal skill but would not be classed as having a mental disorder or in need of treatment.The major strength when using this model of defining abnormalities is that it is not subject to personal bias as the standards are set and based wholly on statistics and frequencies; how common certain behaviour is and how often it occurs.However there are many limitations when using this model, as mentioned above there are many abnormal traits that are statistically infrequent but socially desirable such as being ambidextr ous, but according to this model they would be classed as having a mental disorder or in need of treatment which is not the case due to the fact they have an uncommon ability, furthermore there are abnormal traits whist being a statistically frequent type of behaviour they are socially undesirable such as depression.Another flaw is the fact that the infrequency of some behaviours differ culturally and sub-culturally as certain behaviours are socially acceptable in some cultures but not in others, also within certain cultures there maybe differences. In some African cultures being able to speak to the dead or hearing voices may be statistically infrequent but displaying these kinds of traits are viewed as a blessing therefore socially desirable whereas in the U.K if you professed to be able to speak with dead people, hearing voices or receiving messages from god you would definitely raise concerns with regards to their mental state as this kind of behaviour is statistically infrequen t and socially undesirable. One way to define abnormalities is a ‘Deviation social norms’. Deviation derives from the word deviant and this is defined as irregular or unusual behaviour, social norms are the standards of acceptable behaviour set by us and society around us.Therefore deviating from the social norm is an individual or individuals who act out of character in accordance to the social norms set by society. A simple example of deviating from the social norm is rudeness or lack of politeness. Politeness is fundamental when interacting and communicating with each other positively; similarly somebody who is rude is therefore behaving in a deviant way as they are unable to interact with others according to what society expects.However as our culture also defines our social norms within society, likewise the norms we value may not be socially accepted within another culture. A good illustration of this is the contrast of social norms is the United Kingdom and place s in the United Arab Emirates like Dubai, regarding public displays of affection. In the U. K we have a more relaxed opinion of public displays of affection; to a certain extent of course, whilst in Dubai it is socially unacceptable even criminal to publicly display affection even in an environment we may deem as socially acceptable such as the beach.One of the most predominant limitations is that defining abnormalities in this way may be susceptible to abuse, as social norms change through history. What may have been acceptable 50 years ago may not be acceptable now and vice versa, for instance in the case of being pregnant out of wedlock in the 1950’s, many women were sectioned and treated for a mental illness, whereas nowadays it is deemed socially acceptable to engage in sex and procreate before marriage without any reprisals or threat of institutionalisation.However if we were to define abnormal behaviour with the single model of deviating from the social norm, professio nals could in turn label everyone that does not conform as mentally ill which is not always the case. ( Szasz 1974, cited in Cardwell and Flanagan, 2008, page 178) Additionally another limitation of defining abnormalities using this characteristic is cultural relativism. As we know the process of defining a deviation from the social norm is majorly influenced by our culture as it is our culture that defines what a particular norm is.For example a psychologist from the United Kingdom may have a diagnosis for an individual displaying abnormal behaviour, such as walking the streets with a gun meanwhile a psychologist in the United States of America may not. Every culture has their own social norms and within those cultures there are sub-cultures that would have their own social norms therefore the cultural relativity; whether it be cross or sub-culturally has to be taken into account when diagnosing somebody’s symptoms as abnormal.Furthermore in the DSM (The Diagnostic and Stati stics Manual) there is a section that describes certain patterns of behaviour and syndromes that are specific to certain areas and places around the world. Psychologists call this ‘culture- bound syndromes’ which means that there are no universal standards when labelling individuals as abnormal, as disorders vary in conjunction to where you and the disorder originate. There is another way to define abnormal behaviour another model is ‘Failure to function adequately’.Failure to function adequately from the sufferer’s point of view manifests itself when they are unable to cope with the daily demands of life such as working, interacting with others meaningfully, therefore labelling their own behaviour as abnormal; resulting in an individual seeking medical attention. David Rosenhan & Martin Seligman (1989) stated that there are a various features of abnormality other than suffering and maladaptiveness. Other features are unconventional behaviour, observ er discomfort, violation of moral standards, loss of control and irrationality.However just displaying one of the above features is of no great significance, it is the presence of several that would define abnormal behaviour. (www. integratedsociopsychology. net) There are further limitations to this model when defining abnormality, as the patient or professional has to recognise the failure to function adequately is apparent, which is opinion based and may differ. For instance an individual may think their maladaptive abnormal behaviour is perfectly normal and they are coping fine, meanwhile not being able to comprehend their inability to cope, sequentially others may find their behaviour very distressing.However someone displaying adaptive, abnormal habits such as Obsessive Compulsive Disorder whilst not posing a threat to themselves or society could still be classified as being abnormal due to unconventional behaviour. Showing signs of distress, irrationality and maladaptive beha viour would usually result in being classed as abnormal but this may not always be the case; for example showing signs of distress such as being depressed may be classed as abnormal behaviour but the individual may feel fine even happy.Again when showing signs of irrationality, you may be causing no harm to professing that you may be Jesus but irrational thoughts about death and killing for instance would raise concern, in turn maladaptive behaviour can be demonstrated when an individual self-harms or mutilates we would class them as portraying abnormal behaviour whereas smoking can be seen as self-harming but not enough criterion to be classed as mentally ill due to maladaptive tendencies.Cultural relativity plays a crucial part in this feature when defining abnormalities as each culture functions in different ways, hence the failure to function needs to be assessed according to their culture. For example, in the United Kingdom dogs are viewed as family members even as companions a nd the harming of, especially eating a dog is a criminal offense punishable by law. Therefore this behaviour would be considered abnormal; whereas in China, dogs are eaten as part of a meal and keeping a dog in the home as a pet would be viewed as abnormal behaviour in China.The standard of one culture cannot be used to judge another as the symptoms and diagnosis are dependent on the cultural ideals and standards upheld by the individual patient. Alternatively another approach used to define abnormal behaviour is ‘Deviating from ideal mental health’. This model uses the similar approach used when detecting physical illness, when diagnosing a physical illness physician’s look for signs of physical health such as regular heartbeat; normal body temperature etc. , so an absence of one of these signs would indicate illness.In 1958, Marie Jahoda through research and secondary evidence developed a theory that if physical illness can be detected by the absence of the sta ndard ‘signs’ of health then alternatively mental health could be also. (en. wikipedia. org) The characteristics she identified as defining someone as being of ‘Ideal Mental Health’ included having an accurate view of reality, integration and ability to deal with stressful situations, capability to grow, develop and adjust, also being able to function at work and hold positive relations even the ability to love.In view of this model it shows that the absence of one the above criteria would indicate an abnormality even a potential mental condition. With all models there are limitations, according to this particular model the majority of people in general would be classed as abnormal or suffering a mental disorder of some kind as most people lack one of the criterion. Marie Jahoda did say that it was the ‘Ideal’ mental health so it would be difficult to gauge the level of abnormality depending on the amount of criterion an individual maybe lackin g.For example someone could be lacking the criterion of personal growth and actualisation resulting in a lack of drive and ambition, but that individual may be completely happy even satisfied regarding the situation; according to Jahoda they would be still viewed as mentally ill rather than just unambitious and lacking motivation. Despite Marie Jahoda using a similar technique used to define physical illness, physical illness have physical causes such as a cough due to contracting a virus whereas being diagnosed as having a mental illness, atients and psychologists are not always presented with physical signs as most mental illnesses derive from trauma in life, for that reason the diagnosis of a mental illness cannot be identified in exactly the same way as a physical illness. Cultural relativism is a compelling limitation as different cultures have different ways of expressing their ‘Ideal’ mental health.For example, according to Jahoda an absence of the criterion of s elf-actualization would indicate the presence of a mental disorder but that is because the western world strives for individuality and acclaim, however some tribal communities in Africa and the Amazon act as a collective and concentrate on working as a group and sharing every aspect of daily life, if the Jahoda criterion was measured against an Amazonian tribe they would be deemed as mentally ill rather than being a caring tightknit community, the cross cultural differences are too much of an dominating factor.The different models described all differ in perspectives. Failure to function adequately focuses on the individual’s sense of abnormal functioning, deviating from social norm concentrates on other people’s perspective and deviating from ideal mental health is an amalgamation of the first two models without taking into account subjective feelings.The classification and definition of abnormal behaviour has many successful approaches but as a single model is not ad equate enough to correctly define abnormalities, although each model definitely gives a good indication, it’s the combination of the described models commonly known as the multi-criteria approach that successfully aids psychologists in correctly defining and diagnosing abnormal behaviour correctly in a patient.References Cardwell, R. Flanagan, C. (2008) Psychology AS: The Complete Companion. Oxford University Press: Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP. Accessed 15. 10. 12 http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Marie_Jahoda Accessed 21. 10. 12 http://www. integratedsociopsychology. net/Defining_Abnormality/7'FeaturesofAbnormality'-DavidRosenhan&M. html Accessed 16. 10. 12

Observations of marketing aspects at a retail store Essay

Observations of marketing aspects at a retail store - Essay Example Following are the major marketing aspects of Walmart: 1. Placement of products – As the customers want easy access to the products, there is proper assortment of each product category. Even there is a wide selection range which allows me to make purchasing decisions effectively. 2. Posters of the latest deals – Any new deal is displayed in the form of posters at the entrance. With the help of these advertisements, I am informed about the price saving options available for me in the store. 3. Distinctive shelves for promotion of new items in market – The latest products are displayed in the form of shelves in the respective category area so that the customers are informed about the latest addition. Most of the time I try out new things on the basis of these advertisements. 4. Friendly customer support staff – It has an excellent staff who is always willing to help the customers. The personnel make sure that any queries are addressed and as a customer I have had a marvelous shopping experience in the

Financial Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Financial Plan - Essay Example T $1,500 $125 $1,500 $125 Electricity $360 $30 $360 $30 Insurance $500 $42 $500 $42 Administrative Cost $900 $75 $900 $75 Depreciation $15,000 $1,250 $12,000 $1,000 Promotional and Marketing Cost $103,000 $8,583 $67,000 $5,583 TOTAL $206,260 $17,188 $293,260 $24,438 Based on above sales projection and cost estimation, total initial start up cost for the first operating year has been estimated at $627510 and this break ups for this initial cost is given below. Initial Start up Cost for first year of Operation TOTAL Capital Expenditure $328,250 Cost Of Goods Sold for the first Year $20,800 Fixed Overheads Expenses for First Year $206,260 Liquid Cash $72,200 Start Up Cost Total for the first years $627,510 Therefore, based on the above required initial cost for the business, the necessary capital will be obtained from the shareholders’ contributions and from the long and short term loans. The following table presents source and cost of different capitals. Source of Capital Invest ment Required For first years $627,510 Capital from Shareholders $313,755 Short Term Loan @ 8% $62,751 Capital From Long term Loan @ 10% $251,004 Income Statement After determining the estimated cost for the different activities like operations, manufacturing, development etc, the projected income statement can be prepared considering estimated sales. Monthly sales forecast has been estimated for the first two years, and the projected income statements have developed on monthly basis for the first years. The following table shows income statement for the first year. Income Statement for First Year    Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Yearly Sales Units 40 45 50 53 60 70 75 77 80 90 92 100 832 Revenue $2,000 $2,250 $2,500 $2,650 3,000 $3,500 $3,750 $3,850 $4,000 $4,500 $4,600 $5,000... For preparing three major financial statements i.e. Income statement, cash flow and balance sheet necessary areas like sales projection, estimated cost, required capital and other investments needed to be determined properly. The following table depicts estimated cost for capital investment required for manufacturing unit and office equipments. Major capital investment includes software development cost for tablet PC and other machineries like computer and tools. For the offices, necessary furniture will also be required that will incur certain amount of cost. Besides, there will be certain fixed overhead that will be incurred in every month. The costs of necessary fixed overheads are given in the table for first two years. Therefore, based on the above required initial cost for the business, the necessary capital will be obtained from the shareholders’ contributions and from the long and short term loans. The following table presents source and cost of different capitals. Aft er determining the estimated cost for the different activities like operations, manufacturing, development etc, the projected income statement can be prepared considering estimated sales. Monthly sales forecast has been estimated for the first two years, and the projected income statements have developed on monthly basis for the first years. The following table shows income statement for the first year. In the first, year of operation, the sales will be expected to very low, and on the other hand, the fixed expenses will higher due to high promotional and marketing, and depreciations.

Effects in Adult Diabetics Participating in Anaerobic Exercise versus Annotated Bibliography

Effects in Adult Diabetics Participating in Anaerobic Exercise versus Strength Training Exercise - Annotated Bibliography Example Anaerobic exercise can use glucose in the absence of air, and this type of exercise results in muscles that develop differently than another exercise. Some examples of anaerobic exercise are spinning, jumping or sprinting (Train with me, 2012). Strength training can also be considered anaerobic when done in high intensity through most strength training programs are of low to moderate intensity and remain aerobic. Strength training exercise is thought to promote strength while developing flexibility (Spaulding, 2012). Strength training is known to help protect the health of bones and decrease and reverse muscle loss. Strength training involves contracting of muscles against a resistant force. Exercises that are considered strength training are push-ups, stair climbing, and weight lifting. The importance of exercise is recognized in diabetic blood glucose control. Each type of exercise burns energy differently, affecting the body’s blood glucose levels. The research will help decide which type of exercise is most beneficial in controlling their glucose levels. Dijk, J. V., Manders, R., Tummers, K., & Bonomi, A. (2012). Both resistance- and endurance-type exercise reduce the prevalence of hyperglycemia in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance and in insulin-treated and non-insulin-treated type-2 diabetic patients. Diabetologia, 55(5), 1273-1282. do: 10.1007/s00125-011-2380-5 The methodology used in this research study was statistics and data analysis. There were 45 participants. 15 were men with IGT and 30 men who were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. None of the participants had renal failure, liver disease, morbid obesity, hypertension or a history of serious cardiovascular problems. Written consent was obtained from each participant.  Ã‚  

Introduction to Management Accounting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Introduction to Management Accounting - Essay Example Theories on motivation – presentation and analysis In order to understand the potential use of motivational theories in management accounting it would be necessary to refer to the context of ‘motive’, as the basis for the development of motivation, a process causing the willingness of individuals to be engaged or not in a particular activity or to put all their efforts in the achievement of a specific target. In accordance with Singla motive is ‘the latent power in a person which impels him to do a work’. Different approaches have been developed in literature regarding the explanation of motivation, as a factor influencing the performance of employees in businesses of different characteristics. In accordance with the reinforcement theory, each human is likely to decide considering the consequences of his behaviour. Knowing the results (outcomes) of his behaviour in advance, an individual can plan his behaviour accordingly so that the negative consequences are avoided and, if possible, the expected benefits are achieved. (Gitman et al. 2008). In the context of business environment, the reinforcement theory could have the following explanation: employees are promised specific rewards if they reach a particular level of performance; from a similar point of view, employees may be given a warning that if they fail to reach a minimum level of performance, they will be punished by a decrease in their payment or the deduction of certain of their common benefits – for instance, the mont hly subscription to leisure activities and so on. The punishment when used as a threat for pressuring employees to reach a particular level of performance is a policy based on the reinforcement theory, as explained above. In the study of McKenna (2000) reference is made to the theory of McFarlin and Sweeney (1992) on human motivation; in accordance with the above researchers, within modern businesses the motivation of individuals is depended on the following two factors: the distributive justice and the procedural justice; the former is reflected in the payment of equal salaries of employees reaching the same level of performance within the same organization; the latter means that within each organization the measures taken for the rewarding of employees in all departments are similar (McKenna 2000). The existence of distributive just

The world rate of diabetes keeps increasing mainly because of physical Research Paper

The world rate of diabetes keeps increasing mainly because of physical activities, high rate of stress, and high rate of obesity - Research Paper Example The deficit indicates an increase of 250 million people in a span of 24 years (McClaughlyn 1). The data shows a consistent increase in diabetes because of physical activities, high rate of stress and an elevated rate of obesity. Lack of insulin resulting from destruction of insulting secreting beta cells in the pancreas causes diabetes. An individual’s white blood cells attacks and destroys the beta cells rendering it unproductive in the protection against bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. The condition frequently attacks children and young adults. Heredity plays a fundamental role in determining the manifestation of the disease. The parents pass the instructional genes making proteins essential body cell functions to their children. The genes determine the body’s susceptibility to and defense against type 1 diabetes. The corrective mechanism for this condition involves daily injections of insulin to make the victim survive. Lack of physical activities poses an influence in the rate of diabetes manifestation. Without sufficient involvement in physical activities, one develops conditions of overweight and obesity, which ultimately leads to the acquisition of Type 2 Diabetes. Overweight and obesity result from an imbalance occurring between caloric intake and burn out physical activities. The conditions cause insulin resistance that yields Type 2 Obesity. When a person has excess abdominal fats, he or she is at a major risk for insulin resistance and remains vulnerable to attack by other illnesses including heart diseases and blood pressure. High rate of stress enhances the prevalence of diabetes. Stress induces mental stress leading to the general unhappiness of the victims. The unhappiness and unstable mental condition lowers the productivity of individuals influencing the state’s economy negatively. Elevated levels of stress and mental upset indirectly affect an individual’s blood sugar levels making the affected to forget the usual diabetes

Critically differentiate between the psychodynamic and cognitive Essay

Critically differentiate between the psychodynamic and cognitive behavioural therapy theories and critically evaluate their role in clinical hypnosis - Essay Example mer (mesmerism), and opined that neurypnosis is a condition where the central nervous system of an individual enters a stage of paralysis during an almost ‘sleep-like’ condition, which is a form of bodily relaxation brought on by abstraction (concentration of the mind) (Braid, 1843). Since its origin, the term has been defined and redefined many times, and various theories at later stages suggest that hypnosis is a state of control over one’s mind, while some suggest that it is a symptomizing hysteria. The current popular and a more realistic form of deï ¬ nition however identiï ¬ es hypnosis as a systematic measure used for therapeutic purposes (James, 2010). Clinical hypnosis, as a medical subject, even though had existed for quite some years, always remained on the fringes with not much importance associated with its actual application on patients. However, the subject is now gaining a great deal of attention owing to technological innovations in the field of CAT and fMRI scanning. Modern day researchers are considering hypnosis as being a viable, cost-effective and time saving form of therapeutic intervention, without any probable side-eï ¬â‚¬ects. Contrary to the older theories that suggest hypnosis as a state where the human mind remains unconsciousness (akin to sleeping), recent researches propose that individual under hypnosis remain completely awake, with concentrated and focussed attention, however with a complementary fall in the level of tangential and exoteric awareness (Spiegel and Spiegel, 1978). The subjects under hypnosis tend to show elevated levels of ripostes to the suggestions as provided by the hypnotiser (Lyda, 200 5). Traditionally hypnosis has had always been delineated as changed state of human consciousness, (trance like), where besides heightened responses to suggestions, hidden memories of the subject can also be worked upon, by the hypnotiser (Hilgard, 1986). In clinical hypnotic therapy, the exposition for its application is that

Assess why government intervention to ensure equlity of opportunity Thesis

Assess why government intervention to ensure equlity of opportunity was historically necessary to correct tremendous injustices - Thesis Example The policy of slavery could only be cured by the policy of civil rights to rectify the injustice of what it is to live in a country without having the rights of citizenship. Where social structures fail, it is the responsibility of the government to lead the people out of the darkness of immoral and unethical behavior. According to Spalding (2007) â€Å"John Adams opposed slavery his entire life as a "foul contagion in the human character" and "an evil of colossal magnitude." James Madison called it "the most oppressive dominion ever exercised by man over man†. Many of those in the beginnings of the country who helped to shape its ideology did not agree with the idea of oppressing people. The idea of breaking from European structures of law that denied some while allowing corruption to flourish and enhance the lives of the elite was a defining element of creating the New World. The idea that slavery was a part of this New World was incongruous to the ideas upon which the nation was being built. This is not an opinion that is universal and there are those that believe that the practice of slavery in the United States was merely a continuation of economic policies that had existed since ancient times. There is some truth to this assertion, but the opinion asserted by D’Souza takes the argument too far. D’Souza (1995) suggests that the idea that grew within the United States was subversive and expresses an undeserved disgust with the concept of slavery suggests that slavery should still be an accepted idea. What should be recognized is that a heinous practice that had been a part of many cultures across the world was finally identified for its inhumanity as the ideologies of the United States began to influence it and other cultures to change the perception of slavery. Whether we turn to the declarations of the past, or to the professions of the present, the conduct of the nation seems equally hideous and revolting. America is false to the

Hyphenated American Position Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hyphenated American Position Paper - Essay Example In this way, the Irish-American has found a hyphenated identity through response to American perceptions of his (or her) Irishness. The grim nature of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century perceptions of Irish-Americans can be examined through a look at Nast's 1871 cartoon, reproduced below: Two particular signifiers of Irish-American stereotype are present in this picture. The character holds a bottle in one hand and a gun in the other. The bottle signifies Irish drunkenness, and the gun, violence. These stereotypes are so strongly ingrained that even a Korean-born man like myself can look at these signifiers and interpret them in the way intended by the artist. Further, the writing on the bottle - â€Å"Gun Powder, Uncle Sam's† - signifies that the Irish-Americans support their less than respectable habits with the resources of their new land. Nast also addressed Irish females in a series of cartoons about a servant named Brigid. The actual cartoons are difficult to locate , but a description can be found of her in Bronwen Walter's Outsiders Inside as a â€Å"clownish Irish maid.† (63) These characteristics were among America's first popular perceptions of the Irish-American. The Irish-American had much to contend with in building an identity. ... The narrator of the song applies for a job and is told, â€Å"No Irish need apply,† and the following occurs: I couldn't stand it longer, so a hoult [sic] of him I took, And I gave him such a welting as he'd get at Donnybrook. He hollered, Millia murther, and to get away did try, And swore he'd never write again, No Irish need apply. He made a big apology, I bid him thin [sic] good-bye, Saying: Whin [sic] next you want a bating [sic] write, No Irish need apply. (Poole, 1862) In this stanza, the narrator reclaims ownership of the violence stereotype, but turns it into an expression of pride. The final line signifies the narrator's willingness to stand up for his identity. In reclaiming this identity, he also reclaims the stereotype of the Irish-American as violent. He seems to intend an act of physical violence to be read as strength and pride instead of the byproduct of laziness associated with the trait in the Nast cartoons. This reclaiming continued long past the 1860s. Over a century later, Irish author Frank McCourt responded to these cartoons in his 1997 musical The Irish and How They Got That Way. His responses are not verbal but theatrical, as his actors perform â€Å"Brigid† jokes: WOMAN 1:Mrs. Van Wick said to Brigid, 'Look at the dust on this sideboard; I can write my name in it!' WOMAN 2: Lord above, Missus, isn't it a great thing to have an education! (McCourt, 1997) In performance, as viewable on the original cast recording, the actress portraying the mistress speaks in a high-class accent. The actress portraying â€Å"Brigid,† by contrast, speaks in a high-pitched brogue and rolls her eyes at the punchline. This action serves as a commentary on the ridiculousness of the joke

Economic Term and Healthcare History Essay Example for Free

Economic Term and Healthcare History Essay During history, health care economics has changed considerably. The main reason that stimulus change in health care economic are technology and medical care, however a lot has to do with evolutionary changes that the U.S. endured from the beginning. It is very essential to comprehend health care cash flow system and economic history. Administrators use this data to help organize the future of the corporation. In this paper, I plan to use the terms to elaborate on the history and evolution of health care economics and the timeline of finance. Before the year of 1990, there was not a significant health care in America. American medical association was just starting, individual were using home remedy to treat illnesses, physician was making house call and trade service for good, clinic were just getting started, and there were no such thing as health insurance. However, among the age of 1901 and 1940 health care and treatment made some significant change. Clinic became more necessary Antibiotics were found, improvements were made in cleanliness, and individuals came up with ideas for employment benefit. Also, individuals came up with ideas for health insurance. In the year of 1960 social security has been carried out, Medicare Medicaid contracted into law, and Health Insurance Company were coming up all over (PBS, 1960). In the year of 1970, HMO came in effect, and the cost of health care started going out of control and increasing. Since we place great value on health, health care end up costing a lot. Health is so impor tant to us that it go beyond the staff we have. The number of years specialist applies in training the more money government uses on public health. Also, health insurance plans provide by establishment are result as the significance society put on health care. Most important, the fact that what physician provide is important to us, we are willing to spend a lot on their training. Health care cost continues to increase over the past 50 years. This causes a problem for the elderly and low income individual. For example, elderly and low income people relatives are not able to get health treatment. During  the last 10 years, government have pushed for a national health care system. On March 23, 2010 the Affordable Care Act become enact (HHS, 2010). This is to modernize the health care business, making sure individuals are able to get health insurance and service, reduce insurance scam, and reduce the cost of health care. In the year of 2014, this is thought to be complete. Economics, microeconomics (particular aspect economic related to firm), macroeconomics (general aspect economic related to firm), Supply, demand, Inelasticity, elasticity, and gross domestic product (total market value). When concerning with Economics, it is good to explore and test ways to organize and finance the system in order to improve patient care. At its most basic level, health care is a handful of financial transactions, in which patients are obtaining insurance, physicians and hospitals provide services, pharmacies provide medications, and insurance companies pay for those goods and services. So to understand health economics, you must follow the money. When tracing the flow of funds through the health care system, its important to be aware that the money trail is constantly shifting, changing direction and size. Most important, the goal is to improve the delivery of health services, fund innovative and cost-effective medical procedures, cut the costs of health insurance, improve the nations health through prevention and better nutrition, and eliminate graft and corruption in the health care industry while raising it to a level thats steady with the rest of the world. When concerning with supply and demand, competitive markets use prices to allocate goods and services to customers who want them the most (in monetary terms) and to pay suppliers for producing those goods and services (Thomas E. Getzen, 2007). Most real markets and virtually all medical markets depart to some degree from the model of perfect competition. Nevertheless, its a useful starting point for evaluating the economic forces that shape human transactions, even when time, pain, risk, and tradition cause substantial deviations from the simple model. The demand curve has been discussed at length. But what about supply? Again, its vital to note that the economic concept of supply is always a supply curve. A supply curve is a graph (or schedule) that shows the total amount of a good that sellers wish to sell at each price. This curve emphasizes change, allowing us to focus on a range of replies indicating how firms will vary the amount supplied as the price increases or decreases. Just the demand  curve the marginal benefit curve showing how people the market willing pay for more unit good perfect competition the supply curve marginal cost curve showing how much paid induce the market provide more unit. Firms facing inelastic demand see that the total revenue goes down when they sell more units. Firms facing elastic demand find that profits increase when prices are reduced to sell more units. Firms facing unit elasticity see that total revenues remain unmoved. Most medical care is relatively inelastic. Pain, critical needs, fear of risk, and insurance tend to decrease the role of price in patient decision making. Note what happens to a firm that sells more of an inelastic good: Because increasing the quantity sold by 2 percent requires a substantial decline in value, perhaps 10 percent, the firm loses money. Most hospitals face very inelastic demand, especially for emergency services, yet they charge less than profit-maximizing prices. Why dont they charge more if doing so would increase profits? The reasons are many, ranging from the desire to help the poor to administrative controls over allowable changes. Also, the sensitivity to price change today is significantly less than the ultimate response to a price change in the long run. Some medical goods—especially those for which consumers have several choices and enough information in advance of purchase, such as allergy medications—are price elastic. For these goods, total revenues would decline if prices were increased. Thus, its more likely that a medical provider facing elastic demand is behaving more like a standard profit-maximizing firm. However, price controls, informal norms about overcharging, and other deviations from perfect competition may still be significant, even in the more price-sensitive medical markets. In conclusion, history health care economics has changed considerably. The primary reason that stimulus change in health care economic are technology and medical care, however a lot has to do with evolutionary changes that the U.S. endured from the beginning. It is very essential to comprehend health care cash flow system and economic history. Administrators use this data to help organize the future of the corporation. Because change healthcare improve the delivery health services fund and medical procedures cut the costs health insurance improve the nation health prevention and better nutrition and eliminate gr aft and corruption the health care industry while raising it is steady the rest the world Most significant, in this paper I elaborated on the history and  evolution of health care economics and the timeline of finance using the term. References HHS. (2010, March). Key Features of the Affordable Care Act. Retrieved from U.S Department of Health Human Services: http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/facts/timeline/index.html PBS. (1960). Healthcare crisis History. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/healthcarecrisis/history.htm Thomas E. Getzen, J. M. (2007). The Flow of Funds Through the Health Care System. Retrieved from Wiley Pathways Health Care Economics: https://newclassroom3.phoenix.edu/Classroom/#/contextid/OSIRIS:42330586/context/co/view/activityDetails/activity/699329c0-2f30-4b04-b7f8-5fbcc80d8738/expanded/False

Construction Of Automatic Voltage Regulator

Construction Of Automatic Voltage Regulator 1. Introduction Automatic voltage regulation is a process of converting the alternating voltage into a steady voltage. The device that is used to perform this process is known as an automatic voltage regulator(UST,2007,p1). An automatic voltage regulator is an electronic equipment that is used and designed to maintain the constant voltage level. This device prevent malfunctioning and damaging of the electrical equipment . Automatic voltage regulator uses electromechanical and electronic components of various types and designs. Automatic voltage regulator may include negative feedback control loops. The feedback voltage regulator operates by making comparison between the output voltage and input voltage.Electromechanical mechanism or electronic components are used in automatic voltage regulations. It can be used to regulate one or more AC (alternating current ) to DC voltage (direct current ).There are vast varieties of automatic voltage regulators depending on their types and size. 2. Construction of automatic voltage regulator The electronic voltage regulator is made in two different combinations i.e shunt and series regulator. In the shunt regulator, resistor is attached in parallel. In series regulator, resistance is attached in series. The diagrams below illustrate examples of series and shunt regulators. 2.1. Shunt Regulator It is not highly used for various applications. The current is drawn through the series resistor in order to maintain the constant level of voltage.Some current is passed through the load while the remaining current is passed through the shunt voltage regulator. These regulators are inefficient and are not widely used (Radio electronics,n.d,p1). 2.2. Series regulator The series regulators operate by using a variable element in series with the load. Due to this mechanism, the series voltage regulator provides an extremely efficient form of voltage regulation with the linear power supply (Radio electronics,n.d,p1). 3. Device which use Automatic Voltage Regulator Automatic voltage regulator is mostly used in computer power supplies in which DC voltage is stabilized. It is also used in automobile alternators and in central power station generation plants where automatic voltage regulators controls the output of the plant .In case of electric power distribution systems voltage regulators are installed at substations or along distribution lines so that all the users can receive constant and steady voltage . These regulators are also used in kitchens and in refrigerators(Meiji,n.d,p1). 4. Types of regulation The regulation is commonly calculated as constant. However, the regulation has been specified by two measurements (Robinson,2012,p1). 4.1. Load regulation: Load regulation is defined as the change in output voltage of a voltage regulator for a given change in the load current. 4.2. Line Regulation Line regulation is the degree or amount to which an output voltage which changes with an input voltage. 5. Working of Automatic Voltage regulators 5.1. Basics An automatic voltage regulator is a device that is housed inside an electronic device. It is primarily used to maintain a consistent voltage level. It can regulate alternating as well as direct current. 5.2. How it works It works by estimating the output level of the voltage of the devices against the reference voltage inside the device. They normally take a specific range of the voltage levels and produce an output voltage of a narrow range. (ehow,2012,p1). The diagram below clearly illustrates this phenomenon. It shows a voltage regulator that takes an input voltage ranging from +10% to -25% and converts it into the regulated range of +3% to -3%. C:Documents and Settingskirmani babloDesktopnew.bmp Figure 🙠 Voltage Regulator) 6. Operations of Automatic Voltage Regulators Automatic voltage regulator is designed for both single and three phase alternating current applications. The phase and phase regulation has been classified into two types .The single phase voltage regulation is the best method as it provides balance phase to phase voltage level .In case of three phase regulation, large difference in voltage level causes failure of electronic and electric devices due to overheating and vibration. 6.1. Single Phase regulation The single phase regulators are used in units pole that are mounted outdoors .Single phase voltage regulators are combined together and they provide voltage regulation for three phase .The below mention figure is an example of single phase regulation. 6.2. Three Phase regulation Three phase regulator can regulate all three phases at once or it may regulate all the three phases independently .In three phase power, it has not been observed that one phase has very high voltage while other has low voltage .The below figure is an example of three phase regulation. 7. Different types of Automatic Voltage Regulator On the basis of size and design the automatic voltage regulator exists in different varieties some are mention below: The Ferroresonant Transformer (Type) Voltage Regulator The Mechanical (Type) Voltage Regulator The Electronic (Type) Voltage Regulator 8. The Ferro resonant Transformer (Type) Voltage Regulator This type of voltage regulator has been invented by Joseph Sola in the year of 1983.The change in design of ferroresonant is very minor .This type of regulators are extremely reliable in use. Presently, they are being replaced with the voltage regulators. 8.1 Operation of Ferro resonant transformer It operates on the principle of ferroresonance. It is based on the operation of transformer in the region of magnetic saturation. During this stage, high changes in the winding current leads to minor changes in magnetic flux. The winding current is proportional to the input voltage and magnetic flux is proportional to output voltage(UST,2007,p1). This shows that the purpose of automatic voltage regulator is being fulfilled by this method. The graph below exhibits the respective pattern. 8.1. Different types of Ferro resonant transformer The Ferro transformer voltage regulator is also known by various names. These names are Constant voltage transformer, Constant voltage regulator, Ferro resonant voltage regulator,Ferro resonant transformer,Ferro and CVT. 8.2. Properties of Ferro resonant Transformer (Type) Voltage Regulator Their sizes range from 30VA to 25KA. The input voltage in these regulators range from +10% to -20%. The voltage regulation in the output ranges from +1% to 3%. It has a single phase application only. It has the tendency of stepping up and down the level of voltage. The cooling media of such regulators is air. It is mostly located indoors and has as efficiency of almost 92%. 8.3. Discussion This type of regulator provides complete isolation of load equipment from line noise and surges. The output voltage regulation is very smooth .This type of regulators are very efficient and durable .The design of this type of regulator limits the amount of current to the load end. The electronic devices can be easily protected if ferroresonant voltage regulator is used in these devices. 9. The Mechanical (Type) Voltage Regulator The mechanical type voltage regulator has been used in the market since 50 years .This type of voltage regulator exits in different variety of design .The electronic devices which use this type of regulator have an outstanding ability of correcting voltage drop in distribution lines. Mechanical type voltage regulator uses two methods of operation. The first one is changing turns ratio and the second method is by changing the magnetic induction between primary and secondary coils of the transformer. 9.1 Operations of Mechanical Voltage Regulator There are various operations that occur inside mechanical voltage regulators. These processes include 9.2. Tap Changing Voltage Regulator Operation Tap changing is a process in which a transformer has equal number of the winding turns on the primary as well as the secondary side .The voltage at input side is equal to the voltage at output side. The changing of number of turns on the secondary side can result in changing the voltage. The ratio of the turns can be easily altered by changing the location of the physical connection as well (UST,2007,p1). The mechanical tap changing voltage regulator uses some kinds of motorized drive system to change the taps on the output of transformer . 9.3.Magnetic Induction Voltage Regulator Operation The output voltage in a transformer can be changed by making the physical change of primary turn and secondary turns relative to each other .The primary side of transformer generates a magnetic flux which induces current to flow in the secondary windings(UST,2007,p1) . Physically rearrangement of the turn of secondary within the flux field can change the amount of current induced and output voltage. This type of voltage regulator changes the orientation of the transformer secondary side with respect to the magnetic filed .The magnetic induction voltage regulator is similar to the motor which have the primary windings in a cylindrical stationary configuration just like stator and the output windings which are called as rotor . 9.4. Different names of mechanical voltage regulator The various names of mechanical voltage regulator are Mechanical tap changing regulator,Tap changer, Motorized variable transformer, Motor-driven variable autotransformer, Auto-boost regulator, Electromechanical voltage stabilizer, Step voltage regulator,On load tap changer, Motorized variac and Line drop compensator. 9.5. Mechanical Voltage Regulator Characteristics The power quality automatic voltage regulators are of tap switch or magnetic induction types. Their size varies from 1 to 1500 KVA. The nominal voltages are less than 600 volts. The input voltage range varies from +20% to _20%. The regulated output voltage is between 1% to 3%. It has single phase as well as three phase applications. They possess the ability of stepping up and down the voltage. They require air as the cooling media. They are located indoors as well as outdoors. Their efficiency is greater than 95%. The utility automatic voltage regulators are of tap switch type. Their size varies from 500 to 3500 KVA. They have nominal voltages up to 34.5 KV. The input voltage range is between +10% to _10%. The regulated output voltage is between the range of 0.6% to 2.5%. It can operate on single as well as three phases. They require oil as the cooling media. They are located outdoors. Their efficiency is greater than 95%. 9.6. Discussion It provides very accurate output voltage regulation. It provides wide choice of kVA rating, voltage and configuration. It can be easily applicable to outdoor applications. It has high tolerance to system faults and overload. It has high tolerance to power factor and frequency deviations. It has good line isolation. It is relatively inexpensive. The mechanical drive components, brushes and contactors needs regular maintenance and replacement (UST,2007,p1).The overloads can damage brushes. The speed of voltage correction might be not fast enough for electronic loads. 10. The Electronic (Type) Voltage Regulator Electronic voltage regulator has been used in industries and for various commercial applications because of its speed and extraordinary performance. The demand of electronic voltage regulator is greater as compare to mechanical voltage regulator. 10.1 Operations of electronic voltage regulator The operations of electronic voltage regulator are based on the principle of double conversion electronic voltage. 10.2. Double Conversion Electronic Voltage Regulator Operation The double conversion electronic voltage converts AC power supply to DC with the help of rectifier .The voltage regulation is done in two ways. The first method is to regulate DC voltage output from the rectifier. It is an economical method .The second method is to supply inverter with constant DC voltage and set the voltage level during converting back to alternating current in the inverter(UST,2007,p1) .The double conversion voltage regulators have a low tolerance to high load currents mostly above than normal rating of the unit. 10.3. Electronic Voltage Regulator Characteristics Electronic voltage regulators are basically design for indoor, low voltage applications . 10.4. Double Conversion Electronic Voltage Regulators Their sizes range from 3KVA to 400 KVA. The input voltage ranges from +10% to _25 % for the tap switchers and +10% to _15 % for UPS. The regulated output voltage is between the range of +/-1% to +/-5%. It can operate on single and three phase as well. It can easily regulate voltage up and down. The cooling media required for double conversion electronic voltage regulators is air. They are generally located indoors and have efficiency up to 95 percent. Size (kVA): 3 VA up to400 kVA Nominal Voltages: Common AC voltages 120, 208, 240 480 at 60 Hz Input Voltage Range: +10% to -25% for tap switchers and+10% to -15% for UPS (varies by manufacturer) Output Regulation: +/-1% to +/-5% Phase: Single and three phase Voltage Step Up/Down: Yes Cooling Media: Air Location: Indoor Efficiency: Up to 95 10.4. Discussion The output voltage regulation is very good. It possesses ultrafast voltage correction speed. It offers no restrictions on the number of correction cycles. It gives versatility in kVA rating, voltage and configuration. It needs very low or no regular maintenance. It has good line isolation. It has poor current overload capacity. It is more expensive than mechanical voltage regulators. 11. Conclusion The automatic voltage regulators are becoming of increase significance due to variety of reasons. They are extremely essential for maintaining the utility level of the voltage. They can drop the voltage due to their ability of voltage regulation. They are highly sensitive to voltage levels and they prevent any kind of fluctuations , thus help in ensuring that equipments do not suffer any kind of damage. The use of voltage regulators avoids and reduces the risks of overheating of equipments as well. The use of voltage regulators is constantly increasing with the passage of time.

Critical Analysis: Js Mills Defense Of Free Speech

Critical Analysis: Js Mills Defense Of Free Speech Reading J.S. Mills Defense of free Speech was a great deal of interest, education and increment of knowledge to me. I was so thrilled by his choice of words and his mechanism of analyses. It is of a great pleasure and of a great honor to me to have this opportunity to analyze and asses critically this very write up. According to J.S. Mill we see that freedom means: a) the freedom of thought, religion, speech, b) the freedom of tastes, and the freedom to plan the life in own way, and c) the freedom of assembly. Thus, Mills ideal is a possible freedom of every person for the purpose of the whole society prosperity. Mill even stated that the state should take care of own people and dont try to increase the value of own citizens with the purpose of making them obedient instruments of own projects implementation. Mill defends the right of individuals to live as he pleases. According to Mill we see that each of us is self-sufficient with respect to own health, as bodily, mental and spiritual. Social growth is the result of all the various individual initiatives. Clearly, everyones freedom finds its limits in the freedom of another. Individual shall not infringe upon the interests of others or a certain group interests, which by law or acquiescence should read as legal. He was forced to accept their re sponsibilities and the necessary sacrifices for the protection of society and its members from any sabotage and unrest. Freedom in Mills mind is the public good. Because a free person is more productive than not free person and has a better chance of happiness, advocated by the time Mill in his work. Now we have a reason to suspect that the freedom is the condition for further evolution of the individual and, more importantly, the collectivity development, i.e. culture-and sociogenesis. Survival of the human species depends on how human can think, and on his ability to modify the form of collective existence. It is possible to say without exaggeration that Mill first felt in what direction the further process of universal evolution goes or even where it should be directed for the purpose of its future continuation. It cannot be overemphasized the importance and necessity of freedom in life. It is our right to exercise our freedom. The freedom of speech in consideration here most especially is definitely needful, useful and should be unutilized or underutilized by individuals in recent times. This is one of the bases of civilization. Thinking about the liberty of thought and discussion on the governmental level we see that Mill was worried by the state censorship of individuals behavior more as a danger rather than the topic of the day. In old Europe the state interference in individuals life and the freedom of expression has not been true until Mills times. It had a place not because of big governments sympathy to personal freedom, but because of the so-called technical problems; it means that the government was still focused on other prerogatives. No one was aware of how widely it may be areas of potential individual freedom, because life was a meager content, and finally the prerogative of th e regulation of morals then belonged to the church and community in those times. First of all, I would like to have a short look at the prehistory of the book On Liberty, because it will help me to be more professional in further analysis of Mills thoughts. The book On Liberty Mill co-wrote with his wife in 1859. The author has predicted a long life to this his work by himself and thought that exactly On Liberty will survive the rest of his creations. Mill does not get tired to stress the importance for man and society as a whole in maximum diversity of characters and full freedom of human nature in a myriad of contrasting directions. Freedom does not only protect from the tyranny of power, it insures also against such kind of tyranny as the tyranny of prevailing opinion and feeling of general social trends, ideas and habits It seems to me that the freedom limits the penetration of legitimate collective wisdom of individual independence. On my opinion, treatise On Liberty is one of the fundamental works of liberal thought, as it provides the rationale unit of society, where the freedom of speech, the freedom of thought, the freedom of private life (including economic freedom) and the freedom of social and political associations were discussed. According to Mill the above numerated freedoms would become a reality in democratic governance. However, in a representative board (it is assumed in a democracy) are possible the tyranny of fashion and the tyranny of the majority. Mill considered that in a society the law and public opinion should compel people to perform certain behavioral rules. In this case the most important question is about the true essence of these rules. In every era and in every country the dominate rules and laws are perceived as unquestionable and self-evident by people. Meanwhile, this almost universal illusion is one example of the magic influence of habit. In all societies, wrote Mill, there are several principles that play an important role in the formation of behavioral rules that are imposed by the law or public opinion in the first and the foremost rate it is the interest of the ruling class. The majority of public morality is conditioned to the interests of the ruling class where one class dominates the other. The second principle, which plays an important role in the formation of the behavioral rules, lies in cringing and in desire to please masters or gods. In addition, the moral concepts were also affected by the public interest. The fact that there are in accordance to our views the presence of good government and bad government might not be one without error. This was critically emphasized in Mills write up. Mill (1859) stated that The best government has no more title to it than the worst. It is as noxious, or more noxious, when exerted in accordance with public opinion, than when in opposition to it. If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were. The opinions we bear always make us who we are. When we see the government as a bad one, it makes us a people who are led by a bad government. An opinion held by a majority or by people in power or even any individual could be erroneous. The same very opinion held by a group of people as truth and correct might be total held by the other group as completely false statement and completely incorrect. The presence of change cannot be overemphasized and does not change as different generation passes by. It is a true saying that as new generation comes, there comes a new way of life, way of thinking and many other improvements or non-improvements in processes. There have been many reformations and changes in the system of governance of any country of the world from the year 1678 to 2010. What does this point to? This means that for a rational critic to rationally criticize any government there should be detailed consideration of the time, setting and location of the criticized government. Nevertheless I still want to stipulate that there still holds some general view on the basic things expected of a government to offer its citizens and this is the freedom of speech. According to Van Belle (2000) we see that For the most part, efforts to defend press freedom have been equal to the task. In fact, if the gradual growth of press freedom around the world is any indicator, the defense an d pursuit of press freedom might even be considered to be slightly more robust overall than the effort to censor. If you mark the beginning of the fight for press freedom with the arguments for unlicensed printing put forth in John Miltons Areopagitica, scholars, philosophers, and politicians have been fighting for the freedom to publish free of government control for three and a half centuries. To make our points approved is an enviable feature and character worthy of emulation which establishes our opinion as a statement of truth. I will not but also comment on this point as it evokes the feeling and awareness to each of us and most especially the government to allow great room for criticism and evaluation of the views and beliefs held. Mill holds the view that our views and opinions despite the fact that they are value statements should have enough safe grounds of defense to it. We should always weigh our statements, opinions and views in order that they should be worthy enough for anyone to rely on. In the issue with misunderstand with a great man once lived-Socrates by the law givers in his time, was of course an act of intimidation, non-civilization and inhumanity. There is a great disharmony between the then existent way of things, judgments and opinion which nowadays is considered as a terrible one. According to Mill (1859) we read that Mankind can hardly be too often reminded, that there was once a man named Socrates, between whom and the legal authorities and public opinion of his time, there took place a memorable collision. There has been in history the execution of great men who made great differences in life only because of disagreement with what they believe by the then governing authority. It is of course not an act of justice, not an act that depicts the presence of freedom and grants full power to the government without a full rational basis. Holding of opinion is not just enough but being able to defend it to some degree is the importance of this opinion thereof. Mill (1859) wrote in accordance to previous statement that There is a class of persons (happily not quite so numerous as formerly) who think it enough if a person assents doubtingly to what they think true, though he has no knowledge whatever of the grounds of the opinion, and could not make a tenable defense of it against the most superficial objections.. In existence are yet individuals who think one should only listen to them and believe all they say. Any argument with them evokes annoyance and possibly some punishments on the arguer in a case when they are the governing body of the very societal setting. There is great truth in this in that for civilized people the weapons of battle are words; well-constructed, that portrays opinion and substantiates it and able to prove and defend it beyond all reasonable thoughts, but not to involve any physical battles. T he battle of words is a constructive civilized way of life aimed at confirming how strong a value statement could be and should even not involve any sort of punishment. The freedom of expressing ones belief is good but more especially there should also be concomitant knowledge of the opposing belief in order to rationally express the basis of this belief. The greatness you have as a propagator of a certain belief lies in your knowledge of an opposing beliefs facts and knowing and expressing a rational assertion of superiority over the opposing belief. It is political as well as rationally worthy to discuss opinions for the complete exposure of its foundational basis and meaning. Analyzing Mills position we see that Mill opposed to individual self-restraint, to restriction of individuals freedom from the societys side, and also he opposed to restrictions on freedom of the individual and society from the states side. It is obvious that Mill was well aware that the joint lives of individuals cannot exist without any restrictions of freedom. Mill said that the freedom of one ends where the freedom of another begins. The boundary of the previous Mills statement, of course, is mobile and conventional and, incidentally, is supported in the free discussion. Mill in his treatise On Liberty provides some clarification, as this border should be determined. But wherever it took place, Mill insists that the freedom is the norm, and its limitations are rationally justifiable exceptions or pathology. An individual is entitled to any vices and f ollies, if it will not cause harm to anyone except himself. Moreover, the scope of conduct, harmless to others, in Mills explanations is much extended. If the individuals behavior provokes a moral outrage and aesthetic revulsion at the neighbors, then shrugs Mill, let them leave their feelings with themselves: the freedom of public interest and public good is more important than their feelings. It could be named Mills rationalization of tolerance. One can easily agree with him that many who profess the Christian fate lack the deep knowledge of its foundation. Mill (1859) was interested To what an extent doctrines intrinsically fitted to make the deepest impression upon the mind may remain in it as dead beliefs, without being ever realized in the imagination, the feelings, or the understanding, is exemplified by the manner in which the majority of believers hold the doctrines of Christianity. To what end will it then be in general to profess something you have no full understanding concerning. It pertains not only to Christianity but other spheres of life. The concept of the whole truth is one that is farfetched especially when considering the extent of truth in the opposing doctrines. Man is not an island and his existence knowingly or unknowingly is influenced by the existence of other people, their thoughts, activities and their way of life. It of course also freely given to man, his existence here on earth and much more especially important is also his freedom to influence his surroundings. He influences all components of his surroundings and this includes the people in it, the animals that exists in it and even the climate. If our notions will actually influence others, it will do so only when it is well grounded such that the erroneous nature of it will be near zero. In the society where the lives of men and women are being led by other men and women, there should be presence of quality and capability in these leaders. It is of course worthy and respectable the fact that leaders act, make decisions, enact laws and even enforce punishments on those they believe defaulted the law, there should also be a justifiable explanation for their actions and steps. Adequacy and competency in leadership and politics therefore not only includes actions which of course should be appropriate ones but also should include their ability to communicate their decisions, intention and even their actions to those they lead. Conclusion I agree to a great degree on the write up because of expressive power portrayed concerning the fact that truth is a complex concept that takes almost eternity to completely rationally evaluated. It is worthy of understanding then that since governing powers, humans and group of individuals are bound to be erroneous, there is only a major demand on rationally expressing the reasons of actions, views, decisions and doctrines beyond all reasonable doubts that could arise against it. Lets remember that Darwin showed the man that he was an animal in some way. Mill explained how this animal is different from all others. Unlike other animals, man is able to manipulate by himself choose the lifestyle and create own character. But the person needs freedom of thought and action for the purpose of this natural human ability has been realized and it means that this freedom must be provided to the person as soon as possible. Thus, connecting Darwins and Mills works we see that their two fundamental books were published almost at one time and they were two remarkable documents of emancipation of the human person, deeply connected with each other by a common theme, as is clearly seen in our time. Darwin explained individuals retrospection on the evolution stage, and John Stuart Mills traced prospects of human further development. Machizukuri in Japan: Overview and Analysis Machizukuri in Japan: Overview and Analysis Planning in Japan has existed more than a hundred years ago (Evans, 2010) and Machizukuri is one type of planning in Japan. By the beginning of 1980s, the term Machizukuri has been extensively used (Evans, 201), but its concept is claimed, to be changing from time to time and its term is often ambiguous as it is usually used base on peoples own understanding in many different situation (Watanabe, n.d). Therefore, the origins of Machizukuri need to be explored in order to be able to determine how the concept of Machizukuri is shaped and indirectly determining the characteristics of Machizukuri that vary it from the other types of planning in Japan. Machizukuri is a type of planning which is closely related to peoples desire in creating a livable and sustainable city (Evans, 2014). It is a type of planning where the local residents work together or in cooperation with the government by doing variety of activities to make their place attractive and appropriate to live in (Evans, 2014). Machizukuri is a collaboration of two different terms Machi and Zukuri where Machi can be defined as community, but also often means small area rather than large area and Zukuri is defined as making or planning (Watanabe, 2007). In general, Machizukuri can be understood as an attempt to improve or sustain the city with the involvement of the local residents in the planning. The activities of Machizukuri include from meeting, involvement of the resident in policy making and so forth (Watanabe, 2006). The terms Machizukuri is claimed by many to be vague and ambiguous because many have used it as a catchword. However, it is not until the early of 1960s, this term started to be adopted in the field of urban planning (Evans, 2010). As an example, the term was used in Kobes municipal and ward social councils in 1965 as a slogan (Evans, 2010). However, it is very difficult to determine when and where actually Machizukuri originated, as in the past it was used often as a catchword. Watanabe (n.d) agreed with this and he pointed out that Mr. Kan Hideshima had discovered Dr Naoto Nakajima used the term Machizukuri without accompanying the actual activities in 1947, and Dr Naoto can be one example where the term Machizukuri was used as a catchword. On the contrary, Professor Shiro Masuda had used the term Machizukuri in his journal in 1952 (Watanabe, n.d). This is believed to be the earliest work that had used the term in relation its actually activity. Although he did not describe the term precisely, he used the term in relation to peoples movement. The term Machizukuri was used in his journal about Kunitachi, where at that time, was in the middle of peoples movement due to the turning of quiet and decent college town into unpleasant place for residents to live in. Some activist called their movement Machizukuri. (Watanabe, n.d) This is believed to be the birth of the term Machizukuri with refers to the activity. However, the concept of Machizukuri itself was ambiguous. In between 1960s to the end of 1970s, several factors had taken place and indirectly had helped in shaping the concept of Machizukuri (Evans, 2010). These factors are not just favor the establishment of Machizukuri but also help to develop Machizukuris concept. The first factor is the influence of the citizens movement. Citizens movement shows that the citizens are concerned and conscious about the city they lived in. This consciousness may leads to their involvement on the planning of the city, hence, resulted in Machizukuri as citizens participation is the key factor of Machizukuri (Evans, 2010). To further elaborate, in 1950s to 1960s, Japan was focusing towards the development of its economy and industries which had resulted in a dreadful pollution. This had triggered a wide environmental protest throughout Japan over the 1960s due to house shortages, traffic congestion and environmental arose that threaten residential life of the local citizen (Watanabe, 2006). The environmental movement by the local resident has indirectly led to the popularization in local participation. This movement had given way for the awareness of citizens right and growth in citizen consciousness. The second factor is the decentralization of planning powers resulted from the 1968 New City Planning Act. The replacement of 1919 city planning act with 1968 new city planning act can be considered as step towards Machizukuri. This is because the new act did mark an important step for public involvement in the planning process (Ishida cited in Evans, 2010). As stated by Evans (2010) that other important features of the 1968 New City Planning Act include the introduction of public participation. By encouraging public participation, this will provide opportunity for Machizukuri to grow and take place. Thirdly is the slowing down of urbanization also leads to Machizukuri. This can be seen from the slowdown of urbanization due to the oil crisis in 1973, which resulted in transition of a high-growth to low-growth economy in Japan (Evans, 2010). Many changes happened after the worldwide oil crisis, this caused people to stop migrating to the city, and some went back to where they came from. According to Alden and Abe (cited in Evans, 2010), net migration to metropolitan regions of Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya was almost zero during 1975 to 1980. However, the central government introduced urban system where the local areas within a city prepare its own plan (Evans, 2010). By giving the role this give the local to are more involve in the planning of the local area, hence may lead to Machizukuri, as its not only the government will be handling the planning the city but also the locals. These factors are mostly had given the opportunity for the participation of the citizens and by opening opportunity for citizens participation in planning, this will give chance for the Machizukuri to take place. Therefore, these kinds of events can be considered to be the main driving forces for the establishment of Machizukuri. Although Machizukuri is often seen as the involvement of citizens in the planning, it has other distinctive characteristics, which identify the actual Machizukuri. Consequently, these characteristics vary Machizukuri from other types of planning. The term machi in Japanese term according to Watanabe often opposes the large area. Furthermore, Vogt (n.d.) described Machizukuri to normally restricted to smaller scale projects such as a park, residential neighborhood and so forth. For example in Mano district with population of only 4,739 people (Evans,2010). and also Machizukuri in Aneya lane which is a narrow 700m long street in the centre of Kyoto (Hein, 2008). This is unlike other types of planning which usually cover large scale such as Toshi Keikaku where according to Vogt (n.d) it deals with the improvement of city or larger parts of it. This can be said to be one of Machizukuris characteristics where it is focusing normally on a small-scale area. The change resulted from Machizukuri is often claimed to be slow and gradual. This can be demonstrates in a district called Mano. This district suffered from pollution and associate health problem in 1960s which led to formation of residents anti-pollution campaign. As a result from this Machizukuri school took place in 1970s where this school consists of lectures and workshops on topics related to residents campaign. In addition, Manos residents had drew up a machizukuri plan where it is a whole plan for Mano and consist of their vision, and ways to achieve this. Twenty years since, the appearance of Mano changed significantly. (Evans, 2010). This can also be seen on Sanjo Machizukuri, it took over 20 years for the Machizukuri to transform a declining wholesale area to an attractive place for shopping or dining and so forth (Hein, 2008). This is another characteristic of Machizukuri, where the change is rather slow, this is due to revitalizing a local area without uprooting the loca l population, therefore, it is incremental. Machizukuri is also seen as a method that focusing on the soft aspects of planning unlike the traditional town planning which is more towards the hard aspect such as roads and other phyical infrastructure (Evans, 2010). Machizukuri may include the hard aspect as well but it emphasis more on soft aspect such as upgrading an area. This can be seen in Sanjos Machizukuri, Kyoto, where the centre of its commerce has an unpleasant appearance. Therefore, in this case, it focused on the economic and social renewal of Sanjo Street, and this indirectly had dealt with the environmental problem (Hein, 2008). In conclusion, Machizukuri is a concept which did not understand very well by many in the previous years. Determining the origins and identifying its characteristics helped in understanding and shaped the actual concept of Machizukuri. Although, it is difficult to really determine the actual origin of Machizukuri, but the term itself has been used since the 1940s and its concept have been shaped by several events between 1960s to 1970s. Furthermore, Machizukuri has its own characteristics, which represent its peculiarities from other planning. References: Evans, N. (2010). Machi-zukuri as a new paradigm in Japanese urban planning: reality or myth?. Japan Forum. [Online] 14:3 (2002). p. 443-464. Available from: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0955580022000008745 [Accessed: 8th March 2014] Evans, N. (2014), Community Planning lecture notes distributed in Urban Japan at Kings College London, London. on 6th March 2014 Hein, C. (2008) Machi: Neighborhood and Small Town The Foundation for Urban Transformation in Japan. Journal of Urban History. [Online]. Available from http://juh.sagepub.com/content/35/1/75 [Accessed: 8th March 2014]. Vogt, S. (n.d.) From Toshikeikaku To Machizukuri Urban Planning In Tokyo With Special Reference To The Participation Of The Residents. [Online]. Available from http://www.linkclub.or.jp/~erisa-25/kosakuin/warehouse/silke01.htm [Accessed: 18th April 2014] Watanabe, S. J. (n.d.) The Historical Analysis of the Kunitachi Machizukuri Movement: Its Nature and the Role of Professor Shiro Masuda. 15th International Planning History Society Conference. [Online]. Available from: http://www.fau.usp.br/iphs/abstractsAndPapersFiles/Sessions/36/WATANABE.pdf [Accessed: 8th March 2014] Watanabe, S.J. (2006) ‘Machizukuri in Japan: a historical perspective on participatory community-building initiatives’, in Hein, C. and Pelletier, P. (eds) Cities, Autonomy, and Decentralization in Japan,[Online] London: Routledge, pp.128-138. A vailable from: http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bm[emailprotected]sessionmgr4001vid=1format=EBrid=1 [Accessed: 12th March 2014] Watanabe, S.J. (2007) ‘Toshi keikaku vs machizukuri’, in Sorensen, A. and Funck, C. (eds) Living Cities in Japan: Citizens’ Movements, Machizukuri and Local Environments, [Online] London: Routledge, pp.39-55. Available from: http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bm[emailprotected]sessionmgr4001vid=1format=EBrid=1 [Accessed: 12th March 2014]